The problem with the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy was timing: No sooner had it occurred than America changed from the Harrison Administration to Grover Cleveland, who famously had qualms about the taking of a small, defenseless land of innocent people who did not want to be part of the United States. As Cleveland fretted over what to do, Hawaii fell under a repressive government masquerading as a Republic under the leadership of Sanford Dole.
The progression of expansionist history went into a four-year stall, from early to , when yet another obscure figure of enormous historical importance, Republican William McKinley, was elected president.
It is important to point out that the most frequent and intense correspondence between Roosevelt and Mahan was about the importance of taking over Hawaii. Roosevelt was restless. In the famous terms of historian Charles Beard, it had reached the limit of the frontier. It wallowed in economic depression brought on chiefly by massive overproduction and a lack of adequate overseas markets.
The Philippines was well into its fourth century of colonial rule by the one-time great colonial power, Spain. More and more Filipinos were demanding independence, and Spain was less and less capable of imposing its will. It was in this context that Theodore Roosevelt, in virtual control of the Navy, began to unfold his plot to engage slumbering America in a war with Spain.
With the support of Senator Cabot Lodge, he supervised the naval buildup. He assigned his friend Admiral Dewey to head the Navy in the Western Pacific and gave him specific orders to strike the Spanish in Manila Harbor in the event of war.
I knew that in the event of war Dewey could be slipped like a wolf-hound from a leash, I was sure that if he were given half a chance he would strike instantly and with telling effect. And there, one warm night, as the captain was writing a note to his wife, the Maine blew up, killing American men.
Was Spain to blame? Who in their right mind would think they would be so foolish? An explosion in the boiler room resulting from internal combustion. Truth was trampled in the rush to war. Spain became a fearsome and deadly foe. President McKinley, keeping up with the crowd, swung behind a war resolution, and for the first time since its horrific Civil War, the breech between North and South seemed to heal. Theodore Roosevelt commissioned Brooks Brothers to make six tailored uniforms, in which he was dramatically photographed.
Our website houses close to five decades of content and publishing. Any content older than 10 years is archival and Cultural Survival does not necessarily agree with the content and word choice today. Learn about Cultural Survival's response to Covid Cultural Survival Quarterly Magazine. Annexing Hawaii: The Real Story. Article copyright Cultural Survival, Inc. December Since the Spanish-American War, the United States has had a significant hand in various conflicts around the world, and has entered many treaties and agreements.
The Panic of was over by this point, and the United States entered a long and prosperous period of economic and population growth and technological innovation that lasted through the s.
The war redefined national identity, served as a solution of sorts to the social divisions plaguing the American mind, and provided a model for all future news reporting. The war also effectively ended the Spanish Empire. The loss of Cuba caused a national trauma because of the affinity of peninsular Spaniards with Cuba, which was seen as another province of Spain rather than as a colony. Progressive Era evangelism included strong political, social, and economic messages, which urged adherents to improve their society.
The Social Gospel was a Protestant movement that was most prominent in the early twentieth-century United States and Canada.
The movement applied Christian ethics to social problems, especially issues of social justice such as economic inequality, poverty, alcoholism, crime, racial tensions, slums, unclean environments, child labor, inadequate labor unions, poor schools, and the danger of war. In the United States, prior to World War I, the Social Gospel was the religious wing of the Progressive movement, which aimed to combat injustice, suffering, and poverty in society. Denver, Colorado, was a center of Social Gospel activism.
He established a free dispensary for medical emergencies, an employment bureau for job seekers, a summer camp for children, night schools for extended learning, and English language classes. His middle-class congregation encouraged Reed to move on when he became a Socialist, and he organized a nondenominational church.
Baptist minister Jim Goodhart set up an employment bureau, and provided food and lodging for tramps and hobos at the mission he ran. He became city chaplain and director of public welfare of Denver in Pastor Dwight Moody, ca. Rauschenbusch railed against what he regarded as the selfishness of capitalism and promoted a form of Christian Socialism that supported the creation of labor unions and cooperative economics. While pastors such as Rauschenbusch were combining their expertise in Biblical ethics and economic studies and research to preach theological claims around the need for social reform, others such as Dwight Moody refused to preach about social issues based on personal experience.
Moody claimed that concentrating on social aid distracted people from the life-saving message of the Gospel. Rauschenbusch sought to address the problems of the city with Socialist ideas that proved to be frightening to the middle classes, the primary supporters of the Social Gospel. In contrast, Moody attempted to save people from the city and was very effective in influencing middle-class Americans who were moving into the city with traditional style revivals. The main purpose of this organization was to abolish slavery, educate African Americans, advocate for racial equality, and promote Christian values.
Its members and leaders were both black and white and chiefly affiliated with Congregationalist, Methodist, and Presbyterian churches.
Among its efforts was the founding of antislavery churches. For instance, the abolitionist Owen Lovejoy was among the Congregational ministers of the AMA who helped plant antislavery churches in Illinois before the American Civil War, aided by the strong westward migration of individuals from the East. While the AMA became notable in the United States for its work in opposition to slavery and in support of education for freed men, it also worked in missions in numerous nations overseas. The nineteenth-century missionary effort was strong in China and east Asia.
While the Social Gospel was short-lived historically, it had a lasting impact on the policies of most of the mainline denominations in the United States. Most began programs for social reform, which led to ecumenical cooperation in during the formation of the Federal Council of Churches although cooperation regarding social issues often led to charges of Socialism. Johnson to transform social problems into moral problems.
This helps explain his longtime commitment to social justice, as exemplified by the Great Society, and his commitment to racial equality. The Social Gospel explicitly inspired his foreign-policy approach of a sort of Christian internationalism and nation building.
The Open Door Policy aimed to keep the Chinese trade market open to all countries on an equal basis. The policy proposed to keep China open to trade with all countries on an equal basis, keeping any one power from total control of the country, and calling upon all powers, within their spheres of influence, to refrain from interfering with any treaty port or any vested interest, to permit Chinese authorities to collect tariffs on an equal basis, and to show no favors to their own nationals in the matter of harbor dues or railroad charges.
The Open Door policy was rooted in the desire of U. In practice, the policy had little legal standing; it was mainly used to mediate competing interests of the colonial powers without much meaningful input from the Chinese, which created lingering resentment and caused it to be seen later as a symbol of national humiliation by many Chinese historians.
After winning the Spanish-American War of , and with the newly acquired territory of the Philippine Islands, the United States increased its Asian presence and was expecting to further its commercial and political interest in China.
On September 6, , U. Secretary of State John Hay sent notes to the major powers France, Germany, Britain, Italy, Japan, and Russia , asking them to declare formally that they would uphold Chinese territorial and administrative integrity and would not interfere with the free use of the treaty ports within their spheres of influence in China. The Open Door Policy stated that all nations, including the United States, could enjoy equal access to the Chinese market.
However, by July , Hay announced that each of the powers had granted consent in principle. Although treaties made after refer to the Open Door Policy, competition among the various powers for special concessions within China for railroad rights, mining rights, loans, foreign trade ports, and so forth, continued unabated.
The Monroe Doctrine was a U. It stated that further efforts by European nations to colonize land or interfere with states in North or South America would be viewed as acts of aggression, requiring U. At the same time, the doctrine noted that the United States would neither interfere with existing European colonies nor meddle in the internal concerns of European countries. The Doctrine was issued in at a time when nearly all Latin American colonies of Spain and Portugal had achieved, or were at the point of gaining, independence from the Portuguese and Spanish Empires.
Monroe Doctrine : A newspaper cartoon about the Monroe Doctrine. It would be invoked by many U. Grant, Theodore Roosevelt, John F. Kennedy, Ronald Reagan, and many others. The intent and impact of the Monroe Doctrine persisted with only minor variations for more than a century. Its stated objective was to free the newly independent colonies of Latin America from European intervention and avoid situations that could make the New World a battleground for the Old World powers, so that the United States could exert its own influence undisturbed.
The doctrine asserted that the New World and the Old World were to remain distinctly separate spheres of influence, for they were composed of entirely separate and independent nations.
Inherent in the Monroe Doctrine are the themes of American exceptionalism and Manifest Destiny, two ideas that refer to the right of the United States to exert its influence over the rest of the world. Under these conditions, the Monroe Doctrine was used to justify American intervention abroad multiple times throughout the nineteenth century, most notably in the Spanish-American War and with the annexation of Hawaii.
The Philippine-American War was an armed conflict that resulted in American colonial rule of the Philippines until Fighting erupted between U.
The war officially ended on July 2, , with a victory for the United States. However, some Philippine groups led by veterans of the Katipunan continued to battle the American forces. Other groups, including the Moro people and Pulahanes people, continued hostilities in remote areas and islands until their final defeat a decade later at the Battle of Bud Bagsak on June 15,
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